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Some dash vowels may sometimes have an upward slant when written to curves. There is no stroke or sign that is written straight upwards in its basic form; however, the halved Ess is written upwards in certain situations being a halved stroke and therefore similar to writing half of a Circle Ses, part of which would necessarily have to be written upwards : educationist expressionist impressionist OUTLINE This is the shorthand form for a word, before the unattached vowel signs are added.

Write the strokes one after the other, joining them end to end, without stopping at the angles, lifting the pen or going back to thicken or correct any part. All the strokes must be completed before inserting any further dots, dashes, vowel signs or intersections.

Each stroke must be written in its correct direction. A few strokes have alternative directions in which they may be written, in certain circumstances. Advanced writers often find other uses for proximity in their phrases, enabling them to leave out obvious words: I am confident, in control Packing your shorthand outlines tightly together along the line is not a good idea, as proximity is meaningful in certain circumstances.

The only time to do that is when you are running out of paper in an emergency or writing that time-honoured secret shorthand postcard that the postman cannot read! Alternative methods are used in the following combinations: a Three similar straight strokes in succession — break up the outline, use the hyphen sign if it helps: pop-up cake-cutter Where a halved or doubled straight stroke would not make an angle with other strokes in the outline: popped Babette judged cooked dotted fact factor liked bonnet A succession of all up- or downstrokes: 3 is maximum, 4 should be avoided to prevent the outline invading the line below or above, causing delays and interference.

One might get away with 4 downstrokes if it started above the line, but these start already through the line. I would suggest breaking the words up — this gives the advantage that you can place both parts in position to indicate the vowel. This is also relevant for many words where it is not settled in usage whether it is one word, hyphenated or two words. You should write a reliable and convenient outline, and make a separate decision on how it should be transcribed. An outline without its vowels is not considered incomplete.

Dictionaries always show all the vowels. Dot "con-", dot "-ing" and dash "-ings" are considered part of the outline, in the same way as joined diphthongs, and, unlike the unattached vowel signs, they should never be left out, except when using proximity for "con-".

Adding or omitting unattached vowels is a choice that is left to the writer. You should always include those vowels that you think will help you read the shorthand. If you always write in all the vowels, your speed will be severely hampered, and you should endeavour to omit all but the essential ones. When dictation slows right down or there is a breathing space, it is tempting to go back and put in all the vowels. It is up to you how much to vocalise, and whether the extra time taken is working for or against you.

If you think you might have to read back, having extra vowels in will reduce the stress. Putting them in at every opportunity is not a helpful habit if you wish to attain good shorthand speed — the two are incompatible. However, it is a good exercise to undertake periodically, so that you revise and consolidate your knowledge of them. Position writing is dependent on knowing your vowels thoroughly and you should not leave them out because you do not know what they are or where they go.

You should make lists of such vocabularies in your line of work and decide where you need to consistently insert the vowels. Single outlines that have little or no context, such as headings or lists. Proper names i. Context does not help with proper names.

Such outlines should also be as full as possible and not make use of short forms. Clashing or very similar pairs see Distinguishing Outlines page.

If the outlines are the same, you can generally omit the vowel in the common one and always put the vowel in the less common one, thus reducing your overall writing. Compile your own lists as you come across them, and let none escape, considering the damage or embarrassment they are capable of.

In the heat of rapid dictation, you may have to create an outline in an instant. You know it is not the dictionary outline, but you must write something. The vowels will help you read it back, but the offending outline should be looked up and drilled to prevent a recurrence — keep a notebook so that you can practise them. Each pen lift approximates to writing a stroke, so avoiding a pen lift by phrasing saves time.

Phrasing is generally for sets of words that are frequently found together, or is used to mirror the way words are naturally grouped in normal speech: Dear-Sirs Thank-you for-your-letter that-we-have- re ceived yest erday ev en ing yours-si n cerely Tick "the" is always joined and therefore it always makes a mini-phrase. Phrasing is an extremely useful tool, with endless possibilities for time saving and many of its own abbreviation methods.

The ink line forming the phrase was called a "phraseogram" in the early days of shorthand, out of a desire to give every new concept its own terminology, allowing the systems to be described and taught with exactitude.

It is normal nowadays to just use the word "outline" to cover any shorthand ink line, and "phrase" covers either the outline or the set of words being represented by it. They are also necessary to insure the system against the inevitable distortion of handwritten outlines versus the drawn perfection on the textbook pages. The system is geared to having the best possible outlines for high-speed writing and reliability. Producing the minimum number of rules or the slimmest possible textbook is not a priority in New Era.

Incorporate any abbreviating devices available and suitable. Insert the vowel signs. If the resultant outline violates "facility, legibility, lineality" then decide on a better outline. Some outlines depart from the normal rules because of the extreme convenience and brevity gained.

The rules are really just a way of describing how the outline choices were made, thus helping the student understand what is going on. Understanding requires intelligence but no great effort and is infinitely better than memorising, which is inefficient, painful and discouraging. As long as the initial understanding is followed by lots of writing practice, memorising is totally unnecessary and redundant.

Seeing a page thick with rules can be very daunting, but if you learn the example outlines thoroughly, they themselves will speak volumes to you and in far less time and space than the lengthy chapter they were presented in. They enable you to spot a bad combination simply by instant mental comparison with known good outlines. Every shorthand writer does this when correcting a dubious outline that has been dashed off.

If you have an understanding of why the choices of outline were originally made, you will be better informed to make your own choices when you need to decide on the outline for a new word without recourse to a dictionary — either it is not in there, or you do not have access to the book.

Until the publishers see fit to reprint Pitman's Shorthand dictionaries and bring them up to date, being able to do this is becoming ever more important for shorthand writers. You do not need to know all the niceties of the theory when first learning, but the more you know, the better you will be able to write new words, either ones not in the dictionary or when no dictionary is available.

To aspiring high-speeders they are a never-ending toolbox for further creative abbreviation. Some textbooks advise knowing all the rules and applying them perfectly in order to write good and fast shorthand, but I disagree strongly with this. When writing shorthand, your outlines will of course embody the rules, but you will never be thinking of the rules — either the outline jumps to mind or it doesn't, and you must move on in the next fraction of a second.

If you need to make up an outline during dictation, you will still not be thinking of the rules, you will be basing your new outline on one you already know. Shorthand outlines are visual and further learning and consolidation should concentrate on that, writing and seeing them constantly on the page and associating the spoken sound with them.

Perusing the rules is for when you are sitting in your armchair at home, correcting faulty outlines by consulting the shorthand dictionary or textbook, and wondering why the outline looks like it does. For the learner, the outlines are the food, your understanding of the rules are the knife, fork and spoon that shape the meal and help it go down. When you are out and about using what you have assimilated, the cutlery stays at home! There are no thick versions of circle or loops.

They must be written in the correct circular motion i. They are read first and last in the outline, or that section of the outline, with the stroke and its various vowels, hooks, halving, etc coming in the middle. If the word starts or ends with a vowel, strokes must be used instead. May be added to short forms and contractions. May form part of phrases. Ensure to close the circle or loop so that it does not look like a hook.

Ensure to take the circles right round so they do not look like loops. When used medially, circles will not always be exactly circular, they will take on distortions, see adjustment and chisel below as examples of this.

When this occurs, do not mistake them for loops — medial loops are always followed by a sharp change of direction, see masterpiece in table above, something circles never do.

The outline gives no indication of this, unless vocalised. In this respect the Circle S differs from the R and L hooks which generally represent a compound consonant e. PL and PR. Theoretically, circle is extra small and the hook remains its normal size; in practice the hook generally needs to be ever so slightly larger to avoid ink blobbing, and the circle can be flattened into a tiny loop it is not a Stee loop which are never used inside hooks. Do not let your small hooks grow in size and get confused with the larger hooks Shun, and L Hook on curves.

In many cases a medial hook can be shown as well, with the circle following the motion of the hook: bicycle express listener display miscreant unschooled inscrutable Small Shun Hook: Circle S, and Circle S following N hook, can both be followed by the small shun hook composition compensation decision condensation transition Top of page With R Hook and N Hook to straight strokes: On a straight stroke, the R or N Hook is closed up to make a circle.

Medial circles use the direction that is most convenient, so the direction cannot be reversed to indicate any hooks, unlike at the beginning and ends of strokes apart from the necessity to choose the direction for legibility, it would also not be clear whether the plain circle, if so used, meant an N Hook on the first stroke, or an R Hook on the second stroke : prosper destroy district excursion corkscrew If there is a vowel after the N sound, use stroke En so that it can be vocalised.

The presence of the stroke N lets you know there is a vowel, so vocalisation is normally unnecessary: bones bonus, tens tennis, chines Chinese, mines minus The combination S-CH-R is not found standing alone in any English word, therefore this outline is used for the stroke downward Hay.

Should such a combination appear in a new word or name, it would be have to be written with stroke Ar after the S-CH, or stroke Ess plus Cher if the word began with a vowel. However, this sequence of sounds can be written in the middle of a word, providing the S is shown inside the hook, thus avoiding clashing with the downward Hay: beseech beseecher Abraham Circle S can be added to final Stee and Ster loops and Circle SES: posts posters exercises Top of page Read first and last In case of difficulty, mentally remove the circle and then read the outline correctly, before mentally adding the S back in: pray spray, upper supper, play splay, apple supply, pint pints, dove doves, roof roofs fund funds, amount amounts, nine nines, inner sooner, ever sever Dot "con-" dot "-ing" and dash "-ings" are read first and last, if present: strict constrict, strain constrain, some consume, dance dancing, rinsing rinsings Top of page When not to use Use the stroke Ess or Zee when: a there is an initial vowel before the S, or a final vowel after it.

Top of page Why Circle S and Ses include the Z sound The S sound can change into the Z sound in plurals and genitives, but when it does, it is not changing the word into a different word. The longhand has solved the problem, in only using the letter Z and sometimes letter C, to show othe difference.

The shorthand has partly solved this problem in a similar manner, with the aim of writing words briefly and reliably, rather than strictly phonetically. Shorthand does not always preserve the basic outline when forming derivatives, but as plurals and genitives cover so many words, the advantages of allowing Circles S to do duty for both S and Z sounds outweigh the disadvantages.

Suggestion for advanced writers: if you have constant trouble in your line of work with certain pairs of outlines, you can choose to use stroke Zee finally for Z-words as long as you are aware this it is not an official outline but you may wish to indicate that there is no following vowel, by using a short vertical line parallel to the stroke, or some other mark of your choosing.

Such idiosyncracies should be strictly limited by necessity, and given very careful consideration before adoption. As always, keep a note of your departure from the normal rules.

You cannot adopt any such method if you wish to teach shorthand! Two initial S sounds should be shown with the full stroke Ess followed by Circle S. This makes an easier outline and logical derivatives, as the formation of an angle is avoided, its place being taken by the circle.

The derivatives will generally keep the stroke Ess, but Circle Ses is sometimes used where it is more convenient e. The outlines are distinctive with Circle Ses, and therefore they do not need to use the stroke S: exercise exercising, success successful, emphasise emphasised Note: sixes and sexes might need vocalising; exorcise is distinguished by the use of stroke Zee Top of page Basic words with vowel other than short E can use the Circle Ses: crisis analysis hypothesis Words like those above form their plural by a change of vowel.

It would be good practice to omit the singular vowel, and always insert the plural one: crises hypotheses Some of these types of words have identical plurals and verb endings in longhand, although pronounced differently, so vocalising the Circle Ses may be helpful: Noun: diagnosis diagnoses Verb: diagnose diagnoses Noun: analysis analyses Verb: analyse analyses If the accent falls in different places, you can indicate this by adding a small cross next to the vowel.

This method is useful for many pairs of words where the nouns and verbs have different syllables accented. As the words are generally spelled identically, this merely aids comprehension of the text as you read your shorthand back, especially important if reading back in situ, with all eyes on you. My personal suggestion is to replace the vowel — the position of the cross lets you know what the vowel might be, and other vowels should not be necessary.

When written medially it is impractical for it to be followed by a hooked stroke. In brief, the short vowel sound as in "pen" is not indicated in Circle Ses, as it is the most common, but any other vowel between the S-S may be written inside the circle. Never vocalised, as there is no vowel to show. The vowel that follows it is placed against the stroke.

When used with stroke Ell, the initial hook that would normally form "Wel" becomes redundant: ell well swell, low wallow swallow It never combines with the hook on stroke Yay or Way.

If such a word arose, it would probably best to start the outline with Circle S on Way, followed by the appropriate strokes or diphone. Someone who is swayed might be a swayee? If you lived in the town of Swaye, maybe you could be travelling Swaye-wards? People do make up words and the shorthand writer has to write them, whether they are in the dictionary or not.

Do not be tempted, in a confused moment, to use Circle Sway for these types of words where the sound is SKW: square squash squiggle Face shorthand learning square on, squash the problems and master the squiggles! See Theory 2 Vowels page for vowel placement for strokes that have loops. Stee represents the sounds ST, and also ZD finally. No vowel comes between the S and T sounds. Stee can be used at the beginning, middle and end of an outline. Ster can be used in the middle and end only. Read first and last.

The name Stee is for convenience only, any vowel can come before or after it. The name Ster does approximate to the vowel it contains i. There are no thick versions. Can be combined with R and N Hooks on straight strokes, but no other hooks.

Can be followed by Circle S. Keep the final part flattened so that it does not look like Circle S. Ensure it is closed so that it does not look like a hook. A medial stee loop never crosses the outline. There is always a vowel sound between initial Stee loop and the stroke. The R Hook is used in these cases because the vowel before the R sound is indeterminate: stopper stutter stitcher stager sticker stagger With N Hook on straight strokes The stroke with its N Hook are read first, and the ST read last.

Keep the final part flattened so that it does not look like Circle Ses. Ensure the loop is closed that it is does not look like Shun Hook. It is not used on halved or doubled strokes. However, writing one outline is quicker than writing two. Attempting to lear alone is not advised and will lead to errors in their use.

They are similar size to C up. These unused combinations may be employed when creating hook may serve to represent a whole word e. Shun for "association". L is shown by an anticlockwise hook written at the beginning of the stroke.

As hooks are never written outside the curve, the difference has to be shown by having a larger hook: flow fly evil Ethel camel tunnel bushel essential Sher is always written downwards and Shel always upwards, so they can never be mistaken for each other: pusher specialise, fisher official, fresher freshly polisher palatial, finisher initial, harsher Herschel but harshly There appears to be no word that contains ZH-L with an slurred vowel, but should one occur, it would never be written upwards, as it is a thick stroke.

That combination of sounds would probably is best written using the full stroke Ell. This is never shown and the outline is fully correct without it. With the R hook, this is generally the "-er" sound equivalent to 2nd place light dot , hence the 2nd position of the outline.

Such vowels are indicated somewhat differently from normal, by circles and intersected dashes, and their placement. As no vowel needs to be written between the syllables, using the hook results in a briefer outline: perfect perceive purchase persuade pearl parcel pilgrim journey vortex culminate garnish carnage furnish Care with "per-" needs to be taken, because there are many similar words starting with "pre-" and "pro-".

This is because, although the hook is written between the strokes, the R or L that it represents is spoken after the stroke, i. They cannot clash with Ar Rer Ess Zee because of the presence of the hook — see zither below which has both strokes together.

Most words with that combination use stroke Ell see below. No known examples of the voiced THel. Reversed Forms, R Hook a One stroke outlines The reversed form provides a means of vowel indication: left curve if there is a vowel or "dot con-" before, right curve if not. Where the outline starts with an L hooked stroke, the left curve is always used.

This includes those with a "dot con-". This matches with the L hook on straight strokes, which are all left curves, thus helping overall legibility. For "inflationism" and "inflationist" a non-dictionary right-curve would be more legible. Any contraction decided upon must not clash with "revaluation". The pen should flow into the hook smoothly with no undue effort at making a sharp angle. On no account should the pen be lifted from the paper. A slight exaggeration of the size of the hook is unavoidable if the hook is to be seen at all, and giving the hook a very slight corner as it emerges from the stroke is helpful.

It is safe to elongate the Circle S, as it will not clash with Stee loop which never crosses a stroke. This allows you to see how the word breaks into its natural syllables, thus aiding legibility: pray par parry, play pal, average aver avarice display dispel, flew full, flower failure, finger vinegar ripper repair, ripple repeal, rebel rebel personal personnel, milliner millionaire "-ery" "-ary" As the vowels are distinct, stroke Ray is used, so that the outline can be fully vocalised: brave braver bravery, grain grainer granary, verse varies refine refiner refinery, wafer midwifery Sometimes the consonant and the following R or L belong to different words, or word and suffix, and so separate strokes are used to accurately reflect the separate syllables: thrum bathroom, masher mushroom, shrimp showroom enabling sibling, dandruff woodruff midriff, usher ashery ashore Strokes not taking R or L hook Way, Yay, Hay, Kwa, Gwa cannot take an initial R or L hook because because they already have an initial attachment, as well as being unpronounceable without a vowel between.

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